Nor should it be forgotten that in the life of each plant, circumnutation precedes heliotropism, for hypocotyls, epicotyls, and petioles circumnutate before they have broken through the ground and have ever felt the influence of light.
We are therefore fully justified, as it seems to us, in believing that whenever light enters laterally, it is the [page 438] movement of circumnutation which gives rise to, or is converted into, heliotropism and apheliotropism. On this view we need not assume against all analogy that a lateral light entirely stops circumnutation; it merely excites the plant to modify its movement for a time in a beneficial manner. The existence of every possible gradation, between a straight course towards a lateral light and a course consisting of a series of loops or ellipses, becomes perfectly intelligible. Finally, the conversion of circumnutation into heliotropism or apheliotropism, is closely analogous to what takes place with sleeping plants, which during the daytime describe one or more ellipses, often moving in zigzag lines and making little loops; for when they begin in the evening to go to sleep, they likewise expend all their energy in rendering their course rectilinear and rapid. In the case of sleep-movements, the exciting or regulating cause is a difference in the intensity of the light, coming from above, at different periods of the twenty-four hours; whilst with heliotropic and apheliotropic movements, it is a difference in the intensity of the light on the two sides of the plant.
Transversal-heliotropismus (of Frank*) or Diaheliotropism.--The cause of leaves placing themselves more or less transversely to the light, with their upper surfaces directed towards it, has been of late the subject of much controversy. We do not here refer to the object of the movement, which no doubt is that their upper surfaces may be fully illuminated, but the means by which this position is gained. Hardly a better or more simple instance can be given
* 'Die natürliche Wagerechte Richtung von Pflanzentheilen,' 1870. See also some interesting articles by the same author, "Zur Frage über Transversal-Geo-und Heliotropismus," 'Bot. Zeitung,' 1873, p. 17 et seq. [page 439]
of diaheliotropism than that offered by many seedlings, the cotyledons of which are extended horizontally. When they first burst from their seed-coats they are in contact and stand in various positions, often vertically upwards; they soon diverge, and this is effected by epinasty, which, as we have seen, is a modified form of circumnutation. After they have diverged to their full extent, they retain nearly the same position, though brightly illuminated all day long from above, with their lower surfaces close to the ground and thus much shaded. There is therefore a great contrast in the degree of illumination of their upper and lower surfaces, and if they were heliotropic they would bend quickly upwards. It must not, however, be supposed that such cotyledons are immovably fixed in a horizontal position. When seedlings are exposed before a window, their hypocotyls, which are highly heliotropic, bend quickly towards it, and the upper surfaces of their cotyledons still remain exposed at right angles to the light; but if the hypocotyl is secured so that it cannot bend, the cotyledons themselves change their position. If the two are placed in the line of the entering light, the one furthest from it rises up and that nearest to it often sinks down; if placed transversely to the light, they twist a little laterally; so that in every case they endeavour to place their upper surfaces at right angles to the light. So it notoriously is with the leaves on plants nailed against a wall, or grown in front of a window. A moderate amount of light suffices to induce such movements; all that is necessary is that the light should steadily strike the plants in an oblique direction. With respect to the above twisting movement of cotyledons, Frank has given many and much more striking instances in the case of the leaves on [page 440] branches which had been fastened in various positions or turned upside down.